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COVID/Pandemic and Biopsychosocial Impacts on Children

Wun Jung Kim, MD, MPH, DLFAPA, DLFAACAP

We are honored to feature this timely and thought-provoking piece by Professor Wun-Jung Kim, a highly respected leader in child and adolescent psychiatry. Dr. Kim currently serves as Professor and Director of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School and is Professor Emeritus at the University of Toledo College of Medicine. With an illustrious career spanning Johns Hopkins, the University of Pittsburgh, and Seoul National University, Dr. Kim has published extensively and held leadership roles in national psychiatric organizations. In this article, he brings his deep expertise and compassionate lens to examine the biopsychosocial impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on children and adolescents.

The early 2020s began with ominous signs of a mysterious virus originating from China, spreading to the Western Hemisphere. Soon, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Western nations including the United States (US) declared health emergencies [1]. The initial peak of the pandemic caused by the COVID-19 virus led to panic reminiscent of apocalyptic movie scenes. Accumulating dead bodies in big cities such as New York City could not be accommodated in the existing morgues and had to be preserved in refrigerated trucks. Some reread Albert Camu’s “Pest”, imagining numerous dead bodies scattered in an Algerian port city. In addition to tens of millions of children grieving from the loss of family members, relatives, and friends, 7.5 million became orphans worldwide, from January 1, 2020, through May 1, 2022 [2]. The toll was greater in the African continent and Southeast Asia than in the US, although the pandemic in America also gave rise to 150,000 orphans owing to the death of a parent or grandparent caregiver. Within the US, the mortality was greater among racial and ethnic minorities, in turn affecting those minority children more than others. Along with other contemporaneous social and political events in the US, the pandemic aggravated existing racism and xenophobia, especially against Asian Americans [3}. With the advancing digital culture, the pandemic accelerated societal disconnectedness and human isolation. The unknown cause and nature of the virus with relentless mutations and lack of treatment tools led to misinformation, politicization, and globalization of the infection. While the evidence for the benefit of vaccination has been accumulating including children, most of the world population does not have access and multiple segments of wealthy nations’ population have refused free vaccinations. According to the WHO’s epidemiological update from countries with available data on COVID-19, over 500,000 new cases and over 10,000 deaths were reported from 75 and 43 nations, respectively, during the last 28-day period from January 8 to February 4, 2024 [4]. However, the new cases significantly decreased to 147 000 in March 2025 [4]. The waning prevalence with increasing concerns about other serious viral infections such as mpox, H5N1 bird flu, measles and other acute respiratory viruses early 2025 has dulled the painful memories of COVID-19. While the acute crisis is over but still lingering, it would be important to look back and learn from the experiences and be better prepared for any future epidemic. The following are a brief summary of research findings beginning in early 2020 until 2024 with respect to biopsychosocial impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on children and adolescents globally and of the US.

  1. Most studies, cross-sectional surveys, highlighted acute stress responses among children with increased anxiety and depressive symptoms reported in community settings and exacerbated disorders, including eating disorders, in clinical contexts.
  2. Several studies indicate developmental delays owing to in utero exposure in such functions as motor capabilities, speech and language development, social-emotional development, and higher healthcare usage compared to non-exposed cohorts.
  3. School closures, resource limitations, and restricted access to medical and mental health services disproportionately affected poor, minority, and rural children. While educational deficits are evident, there is no substantial evidence indicating delays in early child development.
  4. However, when followed through kindergarten, compared with the immediate pre-pandemic onset period, the rate of change measured by the Early Development Instrument (EDI) scores was significantly lower following the pandemic onset in language and cognitive development, social competence, and communication and general knowledge. EDI scores were significantly higher in emotional maturity, and no significant changes were observed in the physical health and well-being domain.
  5. Despite a decade-long rise in adolescent suicide rates before the pandemic, these rates either remained stable or slightly declined during the pandemic.

The studies amply illustrate negative effects of the pandemic in multiple areas of child mental health and child development [5,6,7,8]. Symptoms of anxiety and depression have noticeably increased among all psychiatric symptoms by survey reports. Such increases were pronounced among teenagers, especially girls, minority youth, and LGBQT youth. There is also a report from the U. K., however, questioning the validity of female dominance and theorizing both underreporting of adolescent boys’ and overreporting of girls’ depressive symptoms coupled with developmental trajectory of depression incidences in early adolescence [9].

In addition to psychiatric symptoms, learning deficits, especially in mathematics, have been well documented in relation to school closures [10]. The effects of school closures were significantly worse for children with developmental disability and autism spectrum disorders in need of special education with structure and multiple remediation services such as behavioral, occupational, speech and physical therapies, etc. Even before the pandemic, however, the trajectory of youth anxiety and depression symptoms had been on an upward trend. It is not certain how much the pandemic contributed to the higher rates of symptoms [11,12]. Other variations correlated with the pandemic stage i.e., when studied at the beginning (with school closures), middle (school reopenings) and the postvaccination period. Survey respondents reported a higher rate of psychiatric symptoms at the beginning of the pandemic but a declining rate afterwards. However, a metanalysis of 137 studies did not find any significant increase of psychiatric symptoms overall but a substantial heterogeneity of higher anxiety and depressive symptoms in female adolescents [13]. Although the incidences of such clinical disorders during the pandemic have not been investigated epidemiologically on representative subjects, one can surmise that the prevalence of clinical disorders would have increased. This conclusion is confirmed by medical care and mental health care utilization data for suicidal, self-injurious behaviors and eating disorders. There were temporary declines at the beginning of the pandemic, especially a normal annual peak season of April in 2020[14]. Sex and SES played a role in the symptomatology and health care utilization. Girls demonstrated higher frequency and more severe symptoms of depression and anxiety, and they and high SES groups utilized health care services more often than boys and minority groups [14]. Perhaps loss of access to resources among high income families that could afford care before the pandemic may have resulted in higher distress levels among their children.

The effects of COVID infection were convincingly negative on physical health. A mother’s COVID infection led to a higher risk of preterm delivery, especially in the third trimester, and to motor and speech delays [5]. COVID-19 infection at any time during pregnancy increased risk of maternal death, severe maternal morbidities, and neonatal morbidity, but not stillbirth or intrauterine growth restriction [9]. Although children do suffer serious complications and long COVID, their severity and frequencies are lower than in adults, especially elderly subjects [15]. Ineffective medical delivery systems correlate with other negative outcomes such as underdiagnosis of cancer, and increased obesity, etc. [16,17,18]. A higher proportion of children with a COVID-19 diagnosis experienced new onset of a mental health condition compared with children with a negative COVID-19 test [8.19]. The problems of access to mental health services have become worse while the need for it skyrocketed because of the existing shortage of mental health providers. Seventy percent of counties have no child and adolescent psychiatrist. Clinic closures, retirements, and providers’ leaves of absences to care for their own families contributed. Lack of telehealth access and decreased Medicaid accessible MH services had more deleterious effects on low SES and minority youths [20].

Are there any benefits of the pandemic? Actual youth suicide rates decreased during the pandemic in 2020 through 2022 although the rates had increase for adults during the same time period [21]. One may conjecture the protective effects of more family time during the pandemic may have had an effect, although more free time and social isolation led to longer screen time, causing more depressive and anxiety symptoms [22]. Data on utilization and clinical encounters have also illustrated a paradoxical picture of better adjustment; school closures and social distancing seemed to correlate with better results among children with social and separation anxiety disorders by school closure and social distancing [20, 22]. Kindergarteners in the post pandemic vs pre pandemic years (from 2010 to 2023) showed higher emotional maturity. They scored lower in language and cognitive development, but there were no significant changes in their physical health and well-being as repeatedly measured by the Early Development Instrument (EDI) [23]. Owing to less pollution, masking, and social distancing, the incidence of asthma and influenza declined. The utilization of telehealth has improved access to mental health services for youth in remote areas. Despite recurring reports of negative effects on mental health in non-representative samples, a large, representative U.S. youth population study demonstrated the percentage of youth with severe mental health impairment was 9.7% in 2019 and 9.4% in 2021[12]. The study analyzed data from the 2019 and 2021 Medical Expenditure Panel Surveys (MEPS), which are representative of the US noninstitutionalized population, for changes in mental health impairment and outpatient mental health care of persons aged 6 to 17 years. Controlling for age, sex, and impairment, outpatient mental health care declined among Black youth and increased among White youth. It is again clear that the pandemic was not a unitary experience for all youths. Sex, race, SES and geography all exhibited discernable influences. During the pandemic, the world watched Sweden, with her liberal policy of open schools and open society. The experimentation did not lead to the disaster some people had warned of. With schools open, Sweden had zero COVID deaths in the one-to-15 age group, while teachers had the same mortality as the average of other professions [24]. The debates on the strategy of pandemic management have become greatly politicized, to a degree that influences voters in elections in the absence of difficult -to- execute controlled studies.

While children are resilient, they are also vulnerable. We have short term outcome reports and we do not know how the pandemic will affect children of different developmental stages in the long run. Youth experienced a significant and sustained increase in mental health burden for over a decade preceding the COVID-19 pandemic, and treatment and prevention strategies would need to address preexisting psychiatric needs in addition to the direct effects of the COVID-19 pandemic [21]. The short-term outcome was clear, distressing with unpreparedness and confusion. The state and federal governments have emergency preparation plans for epidemics and disasters which do not include or focus on mental health issues, especially for children. To improve the broken system, the governmental and professional leaderships should fund a well-coordinated system of care, expanding school-based mental health services, child psychiatry access programs, virtual mental health services, and new models of care (e.g., integrated youth services hubs and crisis stabilization units), etc. Of course, these services should be staffed by robust and well-trained workforces with attention to health equity [25].

References

  1. Roknuzzaman, A., et al., The WHO has Declared COVID-19 is No Longer a Pandemic-Level Threat: A Perspective Evaluating Potential Public Health Impacts. Clin Pathol, 2024. 17: p. 2632010X241228053.
  2. Hillis, S., et al., Orphanhood and Caregiver Loss Among Children Based on New Global Excess COVID-19 Death Estimates. JAMA Pediatr, 2022. 176(11): p. 1145-1148.
  3. WHO, COVID-19 epidemiological update, Edition 166, April 2024, and 177, March 2025
  4. Le, T.K., et al., Anti-Asian Xenophobia and Asian American COVID-19 Disparities. Am J Public Health, 2020. 110(9): p. 1371-1373.
  5. Fajardo-Martinez, V., et al., Neurodevelopmental delay in children exposed to maternal SARS-CoV-2 in-utero. Sci Rep, 2024. 14(1): p. 11851.
  6. Lopez-Leon, S., et al., Long-COVID in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta- analyses. Sci Rep, 2022. 12(1): p. 9950.
  7. CDC, YOUTH RISK BEHAVIOR SURVEY: DATA SUMMARY& TRENDS REPORT 2021.
  8. Thorisdottir, I.E., et al., Effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on adolescent mental health and substance use up to March 2022, in Iceland: a repeated, cross-sectional, population-based study. Lancet Child Adolesc Health, 2023. 7(5): p. 347-357.
  9. Wright, N., et al., COVID-19 pandemic impact on adolescent mental health: a reassessment accounting for development. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2024.
  10. Betthauser, B.A., A.M. Bach-Mortensen, and P. Engzell, A systematic review and meta-analysis of the evidence on learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Nat Hum Behav, 2023. 7(3): p. 375-385.
  11. Ahn-Horst, R.Y. and F.T. Bourgeois, Mental Health-Related Outpatient Visits Among Adolescents and Young Adults, 2006-2019. JAMA Netw Open, 2024. 7(3): p. e241468.
  12. Olfson, M., et al., Mental Health Impairment and Outpatient Mental Health Care of US Children and Adolescents. JAMA Psychiatry, 2024.
  13. Sun, Y., et al., Comparison of mental health symptoms before and during the covid-19 pandemic: evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis of 134 cohorts. BMJ, 2023. 380: p. e074224.
  14. Overhage, L., et al., Trends in Acute Care Use for Mental Health Conditions Among Youth During the COVID-19 Pandemic. JAMA Psychiatry, 2023. 80(9): p. 924-932.
  15. Dun-Dery, F., et al., post-COVID-19 Condition in Children 6 and 12 Months After Infection. JAMA Netw Open, 2023. 6(12): p. e2349613.
  16. Hashmi, S.K., et al., COVID-19 in Pediatric Patients with Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia or Lymphoma. JAMA Netw Open, 2024. 7(2): p. e2355727.
  17. Burus, T., et al., Undiagnosed Cancer Cases in the US During the First 10 Months of the COVID-19 Pandemic. JAMA Oncol, 2024.
  18. Faldt, A., et al., Increased incidence of overweight and obesity among preschool Swedish children during the COVID-19 pandemic. Eur J Public Health, 2023. 33(1): p. 127-131.
  19. Taquet, M., et al., Neurological and psychiatric risk trajectories after SARS-CoV-2 infection: an analysis of 2-year retrospective cohort studies including 1 284 437 patients. Lancet Psychiatry, 2022. 9(10): p. 815-827.
  20. Marrast, L., D.U. Himmelstein, and S. Woolhandler, Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Mental Health Care for Children and Young Adults: A National Study. Int J Health Serv, 2016. 46(4): p. 810-24.
  21. Sally C. Curtin, M.A., Matthew F. Garnett, M.P.H., and Farida B. Ahmad, M.P.H. Provisional Estimates of Suicide by Demographic Characteristics, United States, 2022. 2023 [cited 2024 April]; Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/ nchs/data/vsrr/vsrr034.pdf.
  22. Bilu, Y., et al., Data-Driven Assessment of Adolescents’ Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2023. 62(8): p. 920-937.
  23. Perrigo, J., Morales, J. er.al., COVID-19 Pandemic and the Developmental Health of Kindergarteners. JAMA Pediatr. Published online March 10, 2025. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2024.7057
  24. Levinson, M., M. Cevik, and M. Lipsitch, Reopening Primary Schools during the Pandemic. N Engl J Med, 2020. 383(10): p. 981-985.
  25. Richards, M.C., et al., Remodeling Broken Systems: Addressing the National Emergency in Child and Adolescent Mental Health. Psychiatr Serv, 2024. 75(3): p. 291-293.
Wun Jung Kim, Faculty and Staff, Rutgers - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ.  04/29/2014  Photo by Steve Hockstein/HarvardStudio.com

Wun Jung Kim, MD, MPH, DLFAPA, DLFAACAP

Professor and Director, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University

Wun Jung Kim, MD, MPH, DLFAPA, DLFAACAP is a professor, director of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (CAP) at Robert Wood Johnson Medical School of Rutgers University, a professor emeritus at U of Toledo, College of Medicine (UTMC, formerly Medical College of Ohio). Formerly professor at U of Pittsburgh from 2006 to 2013, a tenured professor and Director of CAP at UTMC (1982-2005), Adjunct professor at Seoul National University College of Medicine, Instructor at Johns Hopkins University.

Served as chair and member of multiple committees of American Psychiatric Association (APA) and American Academy of CAP (AACAP), etc., such as co-chair of AACAP Taskforce on Workforce Needs, International Relations Committee, Editor of AACAP News, etc., honored as Distinguished Life Fellow of APA and AACAP. Also, a founding member and past president of Association of Korean American Psychiatrists (AKAP). Recognized by peers as an expert on adoption, cross-cultural psychiatry, psychiatric aspects of epilepsy, medical education, and child and adolescent psychiatry workforce issues, Dr. Kim has published over 100 scholarly articles and book chapters. He serves on editorial boards of multiple professional journals and as a reviewer. He has also received numerous teaching awards and achievements/service awards from AACAP, AKAP, Seoul National University, and other institutions.

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